KHARKIV NATIONAL MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Methodical instructions
for students to the practical lesson
on the topic “Medicine in the Modern Era 
(mid.-to-late 17th – early 20th centuries)”
for the preparation of students in specialties:
•	222 “Medicine”,
•	221 “Dentistry”.

Kharkiv
2018
MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH OF UKRAINE
KHARKIV NATIONAL MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH 
AND HEALTHCARE MANAGEMENT

HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Methodical instructions
for students to the practical lesson
on the topic “Medicine in the Modern Era 
(mid.-to-late 17th – early 20th centuries)”
for the preparation of students in specialties:
•	222 “Medicine”,
•	221 “Dentistry”.

Approved by the Academic Council 
of Kharkiv National Medical University 
Protocol № 10 from 19.10.2017

Kharkiv 
KhNMU
2018
UDC 61(091)«652»(076)

History of Medicine : methodical instructions for students to the practical lesson on the topic “Medicine in the Modern Era (mid.-to-late 17th – early 20th centuries)” for the preparation of students in specialties 222 “Medicine”, 221 “Dentistry” / Compiled by V. Ognev, O. Semenenko, N. Martynenko, O. Myakyna. – Kharkiv : KhNMU, 2018. – 16 p.

Compilers:	Ognev V.	
	Semenenko O.	
	Martynenko N.	
	Myakyna O.	

GUIDELINES FOR TOPIC TRAINING

The aim of the class: students have to comprehend the main peculiarities of the development of medicine in the Modern Era in European region.
To know:
•	Curriculum questions:
•	The Morbid Anatomy;
•	The Iatrochemistry. Peculiarities of the Development of Medicine in the Netherlands in the 17th–18th centuries;
•	The Development of Medicine in England in the 18th–19th centuries;
•	The Separation of Physiology into a Branch of Science;
•	Peculiarities of the Development of Medicine in France in the 18th century;
•	The Discovery of the Cell;
•	The Cellular Pathology;
•	The Experimental Medicine;
•	The Bacteriology;
•	The Clinical Medicine;
•	The Surgery;
•	The Anesthesia.

Be able to:
•	to define periods of the development of medicine in different regions of Europe during the Modern Era;
•	to estimate the contribution of famous physicians to the development of medical science and practice.

Reference
Basic Literature
1.	Fissell M. The Disappearance of the Patient’s Narrative and the Invention of Hospital Medicine // British Medicine in an Age of Reform ed. by Roger French and Andrew Wear. – London, New York : Routledge, 1991. – 267 p.
2.	Risse G. B. Mending Bodies, Saving Souls : A History of Hospitals / G. Risse. – New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. – 716 p.
3.	Stupak F. Ya. History of Medicine : textbook / F. Ya. Stupak. – Кyiv : “Book-plus”, 2016. – 128 p.

Auxiliary Literature
1.	Baly M. Nursing and Social Change / M. Baly. – London, New York : Routledge, 2002. – 416 p.
2.	Blevins S. M., Bronze M. S. Robert Koch and the “Golden Age” of bacteriology // International Journal of Infectious Deseases. 2010. Vol. 14. No. 9. – P. e744-e751
3.	Davidson Reynolds M. How Pasteur Changed History. The Story of Louis Pasteur and the Pasteur Institute / M. Davidson Reynolds. – Bradenton, Fla. : McGuinn&McGuire, 1994. – 151 p.
4.	Weiner D. B., Sauter M. J. The city of Paris and the Rise of Clinical Medicine / D. Weiner, M. Sauter. The University of Chicago Press Journals. – Chicago : Osiris, 2003. – P. 23-42.

Internet Resources
1.	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/
2.	https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/medm/hd_medm.htm
3.	www.lordsandladies.org/medicine-in-the-middle-ages.htm
4.	http://www.thenewmedicine.org/timeline/modern_era.html

MAIN THEORETICAL MATERIAL FOR CLASS TRAINING

1. The Morbid Anatomy
First works on the Morbid Anatomy were published in the University of Padua that was a scientific center of the Republic of Venice. There were many industrial enterprises with hundreds of workers there.
Giovanni Morgagni (1682–1771) was the head of the Anatomy department in the University of Padua. In the history of medicine his name is known, as a name of the founder of a new important branch of medical science – the Morbid Anatomy, which promoted further rapid development of the clinical medicine. During all his life G. Morgagni thoroughly studied changes in the organs, which he discovered in corpses and compared with clinical manifestations of diseases of the dead. At the end of his life he systematized all his experience in a fundamental work «Of the Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated through Anatomy» published in 1761.

2. The Iatrochemistry. Peculiarities
 of the Development of Medicine in the Netherlands in the 17th–18th centuries
Since the late 16th century the Netherlands started to be an economical and cultural leader in Europe. Leiden University (1575) became the scientific center this country and the whole European region.
In the Netherlands, the studies of Paracelsus about chemical nature of the processes in a human organism were very popular. One of zealous supporters of these studies was Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1644). According to Helmont none of the processes in the body was possible without enzymes. They were in the stomach, intestines, blood and urine. Jan Baptist van Helmont can be considered as a founder of the future science biological chemistry and a new direction, which was named the Iatrochemistry. The real founder of the school of iatrochemists is considered to be Franciscus Sylvius (1614–1672). Sylvius considered changes of the reactions of fluid mediums of an organism as a reason of diseases. In his opinion, special yet unknown then substances – enzymes, which transformed one kind of substances into others, and they were contained in saliva, pancreatic juice, bile, and lymph. The human health depended on the quantitative and qualitative relations of those substances. Acidic or alkaline substances accumulated in the body when a person was sick.
Among the professors of Leiden University we have to mention Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) who won the international fame. His well-known “Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis”, concerning recognition and treatment of diseases, was the main textbook on the clinical medicine in the 18th – early 19th centuries. Boerhaave considered the movement as a basis of life and health of an organism. In an organism, he stated, there was a continuous movement between its separate components. A disease appeared in the case when conditions for normal movement disturbed, and the movement was delayed.

3. The Development of Medicine
 in England in the 17th–18th centuries
In the 14th–18th centuries the progress in the development of natural sciences influenced a lot on the growth of the productive forces and economic life of the countries. Special research institutions such as the Academy of Sciences in France (1634), and the Royal Society in London (1662) were founded in Europe.
Since mid-to-late 17th century an advantage in trade and navigation gradually moved from Holland to England.
Taking into account mass epidemics and significant depopulation, which they caused, the need of calculation of depopulation arose. The Bills of Mortality appeared in London. A significant event, which marked actual beginning of the demographic and sanitary statistics, was the studying and summarizing of London Bills by John Graunt (1620−1674). The formation of the demography as a science was connected with his name.
Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689) was a well-known clinician in England at that time. He thought that it was the most important for the development of medicine to accumulate knowledge through thorough observation at the bed of the sick. Thomas Sydenham drew doctors’ attention to the different origin and the meaning of symptoms, which could be observed at the time of a disease. In the causation of disease he attached great importance to an individual propensity – disposition, interrupted usual eating pattern, labor. Th. Sydenham was one of the first in Europe to use the bark of a cinchona to treat malaria.
A famous English scientist and physician of that time was John Hunter (1728–1793). He is considered to be one of the founders of the Experimental Pathology. He was the first to describe syphilitic chancre.
Edward Jenner (1719–1823) was one of many famous pupils of J. Hunter, immortalized his name in the history of medicine by introduction of the inoculation of the cow pox. In the 17th–18th centuries in Europe every year around 12 million people got sick with smallpox, 1,5–2 millions from them died, a significant part of those who recovered, lost their sight. The inoculation – variolation sometimes caused a very hard or even terminal illness. Edward Jenner deserved unique credit for the introduction to medical practice inoculation of cow pox instead of dangerous inoculation of smallpox from a human. First vaccination took place in 1796.
Significant for that time progress in the study of the Anatomy and function of the nervous system promoted the formation of the first in the history of medicine studies, according to which, the main reason of diseases were considered disorders of the nervous system. The founder of these studies was William Cullen (1712–1790).

4. The Separation of Physiology into a Branch of Science
Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777) in the history of medicine is credited for writing the first textbook on the physiology «Elementa Physiologiae». By experiments A. Haller tried to find an explanation of the organic process of movement as a basis of most vital functions. He introduced to the Biology two important concepts – irritability and sensibility.
Caspar Wolff (1735–1790) – was the first one who proved the existence of four germ layers, from which formed organs in a particular sequence. He is considered to be the founder of the scientific embryology. 
In late 18th century, the correct explanation of the role of respiration in an organism was the most important discovery in the physiological science. Mykhailo Lomonosov (1711−1765) was the first scholar, who explained oxidation and combustion processes thus laying the foundation for the correct understanding of the process of respiration in 1756. Later, in 1777, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743−1794) showed by researches, that during the respiration oxygen was absorbed and carbon dioxide was produced, and 5 years later together with Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) proved, that the production of carbon dioxide during respiration was the main source of the warmth in an organism. 

5. The Peculiarities of the Development
 of Medicine in France in the 18th century
Constant wars formed the necessity in surgeons for the treatment of the wounded people. Significant spread of the syphilis, which was also treated by surgeons, raised their importance in the eyes of population and ruling circles. In 1731 court surgeons Pierre Sylvian Marechal (1750−1803) and Francois Gigot de Lapeyronie (1678–1747) created the Royal Academy of Surgery, which in 1745 was classed as the medical faculty of the university.
In those years the dentistry also became an independent specialty. In France the rank of a dentist was officially introduced. It was given after passing a required exam.
Jean-Etienne Esquirol (1772–1846) was a founder of the scientific psychiatry.
Leopold Auenbrugger (1722–1809), an Austrian physician who discovered and developed the method of percussion. L. Auenbrugger closely studied the sounds, which were produced by a healthy and sick body during percussion of the thorax. L. Auenbrugger systematically compared his observations with the data of dissections.
Rene Laennec (1781–1826) was a French physician, who in 1819 developed a method of auscultation. R. Laennec also invented a stethoscope. He was the first who discovered the etiology of tuberculosis, pathological-anatomic specificity in the formation of lesions – tubercles. R. Laennec offered to call this disease tuberculosis. The description of peritonitis and cirrhosis is connected with his name.
New research methods significantly improved diagnosis of diseases, while medical means remained ineffective, outdated. The enrichment of clinical medicine with effective medicinal agents became possible only with the development of the experimental pharmacology.
During that time pediatrics separated into an special medical field. First specialized hospital for children was founded in Paris in 1802.

6. The Discovery of the Cell
The mid-to-late 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries were marked by the number of discoveries in the field of natural sciences, among which one of the most important was discovery of the cell. The cell structure of plants was for the first time described by an English scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703) in 1665, studying plants with the help of an improved Janssens’s microscope. In 1838–1839 the works of the German scientists a botanist Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881) and a physician Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) about the cell structure of plants and animals were published. These questions were covered in details in a fundamental work of Th. Schwann «Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants» (1839), where the main provisions of the cell theory were stated. He recognized physiological independence of the cell and considered the body as a sum of cells. He was the first medical scholar, who described nucleoli in the nuclei of animal cells, which he regarded as very important.

7. The Cellular Pathology
Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) gave characteristic of main pathological processes from the viewpoint of the cellular pathology. R. Virchow and his followers, using new achievements in microscopy and laboratory engineering, undertook the great work on the description, classification and terminological identification of pathological changes in different diseases.

8. The Experimental Medicine
The experimental physiology was founded by a Scottish physiologist, anatomist and surgeon Charles Bell (1774−1842) and a French physiologist Francois Magendie (1783−1855), who studied nervous system (Bell-Magendie law, according to which the anterior spinal nerve roots contain only motor fibers and posterior roots contained only sensory fibers, and that nerve impulses are conducted in only one direction in each case.
The founder of the modern experimental physiology and pathology is considered to be Claude Bernard (1813–1878). He was credited for experimental studying of the mechanisms of salivation, secretion of gastric juice and pancreas and proved the ability of the liver to produce glycogen of blood sugar. He proved as well, that glycogen in the liver could be formed of proteins. C. Bernard was the first one, who recreated an experimental model of diabetes mellitus on animals. He also was the first medical scholar, who proved the importance of sympathetic nervous system in the regulation of vascular lumen.
Emil du Bois-Reymon (1818–1896) was a founder of the electrophysiology. He developed a new method, owing to which he proved existence of galvanism in muscles, nerves, glands and other tissues, formulated the law of the electric stimulation – du Bois-Reymon law.
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) was the author of fundamental works on the physiology of hearing and vision. In 1847 H. Helmholtz made a report “On the Conservation of Force” at the meeting of Berlin Physics Society. Unlike his predecessors R. Mayer и J. Joule he connected the law with the principle of impossibility of a perpetual motion machine. H. Helmholtz regarded the matter as passive and immobile. To describe the changes, happening in the world, it should be endowed with powers both attractive and repulsive. Thus, the world, according to it was the set of material points, interacting with each other and with central forces. These forces were conservative, and H. Helmholtz put the principle of the conservation of energy. R. Mayer's principle “nothing appears out of nothing” H. Helmholtz replaced with more specific idea, that it was impossible if there was any voluntary body combination to receive driving force continuously out of nothing.
H. Helmholtz had for years successfully been engaged in physiology of vision. In 1856 his famous “Treatise on Physiological Optics” was published. H. Helmholtz constructed an ophthalmometer, which made possible measuring the curvature of the anterior surface of the cornea. Thus, the diffraction in the eye was studied. H. Helmholtz was also credited for the invention of an opthalmoscope, enabled to study the posterior section of the eye. H. Helmholtz proved that the ability of the retina of an adult person to see spatially was not an inherited quality, but acquired life experience. H. Helmholtz was a founder of the physiological optics.
The development of the native physiology in the second half of the 19th century was associated with the activity of I. Sechenov.
Ivan Sechenov (1829–1905) was a founder of Russian physiological school, a founder of the studies about reflexes of the brain and scientific psychology. His scientific researches on the study of psychic phenomena were generalized in his classic work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863).
The main field of Sechenov’s research and his main scientific contribution was experimental establishment of the fact of central inhibition of the reflex action. I. Sechenov discovered nervous centers in the brain, the nerves centers, which later got his name. I. Sechenov investigated their irritation: mechanic, thermal, and electric ones which were the reason for the inhibition of reflexes.
The next, an entirely new stage in the development of the physiology was connected with the works of a famous scientist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936).
I. Pavlov realized that acute researches on animals did not reflect a course of processes in an organism, since the trauma itself changed them dramatically. A new method was needed. He created his own complicated surgical technique, which enabled monitoring an animal, which recovered after an operation, in the natural or little changed conditions during a long time. In 1890 his work about stomach function with artificial feeding, enabled for the first time to get pure stomach juice from a healthy animal was published. In 1897 I. Pavlov published his famous monograph “Lectures on the Function of the Main Digestive Glands”. In 1904 I. Pavlov was awarded by the Noble Prize for the works on the study of digestion. At the beginning of the 20th century I. Pavlov paid all his attention to the study of the central nervous system. He presented the first paper on conditioned reflexes at the International Physiological Congress in 1903. In 20 years his famous “Lectures on the Function of the Cerebral Hemispheres” was published.

9. The Bacteriology
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was the founder of the bacteriology as a science. He proved that infectious diseases started as a result of the infection of an organism by bacteria. Pasteur isolated microorganisms, which he named staphylococci from furuncles, and streptococci from the discharges in a parturient fever. Observing conditions of the bacterial cultures development he managed using heating and drying to attenuate them, to find out a possibility to prevent infecting with anthrax and rabies, to inoculate weakened cultures of the microorganisms of these diseases. L. Pasteur was able to obtain the anti-rabic vaccine, which was first inoculated to a man in 1885. In 1888 the Pasteur Institute began its work in Paris.
Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a famous German microbiologist. He harvested the culture of the anthrax. In 1882 he discovered a tuberculosis causative agent, which was rightly called bacillus Kochii, and the next year he discovered cholera vibrio.
In 1892 a botanist and microbiologist Dmitrii Ivanovsky (1864–1920) discovered viruses – the smallest from the known to a modern science living things, which are causative agents of a number of infectious diseases.
The epoch in the understanding of the immunity was represented by the works of Elie Metchnikoff (1845–1916), who explained the immunity as a result of a successful fight of leucocytes-phagocytes with microorganisms. Later, it was proved, that the phagocytic function was characteristic of many cells of the body, which were united into a reticulo-endothelial system.
It was appeared, that the blood serum, which contained substances, able to dissolve bacteria, played a big role in the protection of the body against infections.

10. The Clinical Medicine
Sergey Botkin (1832–1889) was one of the most outstanding clinicians-therapists of the 2nd half of the 19th century. S. Botkin proved a reflex mechanism of a number of pathologic features. He was the first medical scholars considered so called catarrhal, parenchymatous hepatitis as an infectious disease. Later that disease was named morbus Botkini. Having united the experimental physiology and clinical medicine S. Botkin started to develop a new direction in the clinical medicine in Russian empire – the experimental therapy.
The discovery of hormones was crucial for the development of the therapy. In 1902 English physiologists William Bayliss (1860–1924) and Edward Starling (1866–1927) discovered secretum in a mucous membrane of the duodenum. It stimulated the secretion of bile and pancreatic juice. E. Starling introduced the term «hormone» to a science. Edward Kendall (1886–1972), isolated thyroxine – a hormone of the thyroid gland in 1914.
The discovery of hormones greatly enriched the therapy of a number of diseases, the etiology of which had been unknown till then and which had been considered incurable. Wide practical application of the hormonotherapy, accumulation of many scientific physicochemical and clinical observations in this field became a basis for the separation of a special brunch – endocrinology from the therapy.
The discovery of vitamins was as important for the therapy and medicine in general. For the first time the substances later called vitamins were discovered by a Russian pediatrician Nikolai Lunin (1854–1934) in 1880. In 1912 a scientist Kazimerz Funk (1884–1967) proved that a reason for a number of mass falling sick with such diseases as scurvy, pellagra, and beri-beri was feeding fully milled product, which lacked the substances, he called vitamins.
In the second half of the 19th century limitations of diagnosis were widened greatly by the appliance besides percussion and auscultation, laboratory assessment of blood, urine, dung, lumbar puncture, bone marrow aspiration, histological examination of the biopsy material. Blood pressure monitors were introduced to general clinical practice by Italian pathologist Scipione Riva-Rocci (1863–1937) in 1896 and by Nikolai Korotkov (1874–1920), a Russian surgeon, in 1905). The diagnostics of heart diseases became more accurate due to the invention of an electrocardiograph by Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), a Dutch doctor, in 1903.
In 1895 the discovery of X-rays by a German physicist Wilhelm Rontgen (1845–1923), later named after him was crucial for the medical science as well as for many other fields of knowledge. X-ray rooms became obligatory parts of each medical and research institutions. Along with X-rays for the therapy, especially in malignant tumors, radium began to be used. It was discovered by a French physicist Pierre Curie (1859−1906) and his wife Marie Curie (1867–1934) in 1898.

11. The Surgery
Joseph Lister (1827–1912) was an English surgeon, who introduced a new method of the prevention of purulent process evolvement in wounds to surgery. The new method became epochal in the development of this branch of medicine. In 1867 J. Lister offered to protect the operation zone from bacteria from the air by spraying a solution of the carbolic acid, which was also used for washing instruments and surgeons’ hands, while a wound had to be covered with an eight layered pad.
The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the discovery, which was epochal for the surgery and therapy the introduction of the blood transfusion on the scientific principles. It became possible after the discovery of blood groups by Karl Landsteiner (1868–1943), an Austrian biologist, and Jan Jansky (1873–1921), a Czech serologist, neurologist, and psychiatrist, who credited the classification of blood into the four types (I, II, III, IV) of the ABO blood system.

12. The Anesthesia
With the development of the chemistry anesthetics were discovered. An English chemist Humphry Davy (1778–1829) in 1800 paid the attention to the intoxication, and introduced anesthesia by the inhaling of nitric oxide. In 1846 on the recommendation of the American chemist and physician Charles Jackson (1805–1880) sulfuric ether was applied during the operation. A year later, in 1801, the Scottish surgeon and obstetrician James Young Simpson (1811–1870) started to use chloroform for the labour pain relief. The wide application of the local anesthesia became possible only after synthesizing of a low-toxic drug – novocaine (procaine) by Alfred Einhorn (1856–1917), a German chemist, in 1905.

TESTS

1.	In the 19th century new diagnostic methods were developed. There were percussion and auscultation. Who and when developed a method of the auscultation?	
	A	Claude Bernard in 1855	
	B	Jean-Nicolas Corvisart in 1808	
	C	Leopold Auenbrugger in 1761	
	*D	Rene Laennec in 1819	
2.	In the 19th century a new direction appeared in medicine. It united the experimental physiology and clinical medicine and was called the experimental therapy. Who was the founder of the experimental therapy in the medicine in Russian empire?	
	*A	Botkin S.	
	B	Obraztsov V 	
	C	Pavlov I.	
	D	Samoilovych D.	
3.	The founder of the modern experimental physiology and pathology is considered to be Claude Bernard (1813–1878). An experimental model of what disease did C. Bernard recreate on animals?	
	*A	Diabetes mellitus 	
	B	Hepatitis	
	C	Myocardial infarction	
	D	Nephritis	
4.	The greatest turning point in the natural science took place in the 19th century. The physiology completely separated from the anatomy and histology, became a completely independent science and made a great progress. What scientist discovered the reflex nature of the higher nervous activity?	
	A	Charles Bell 	
	B	Claude Bernard	
	C	Francois Magendie	
	*D	Ivan Sechenov	
5.	In 1816 a new device for auscultation was invented – stethoscope. The first stethoscope was a wooden cylinder 30.4 sm long and 3.8 sm in diameter. Who offered a stethoscope for the auscultation of the thorax?	
	A	C. Rokitansky 	
	B	J. -N. Corvisart	
	*C	R. Laennec	
	D	S. Botkin	
6.	The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system in a given frame of reference remains constant. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another. Who of scientists formulated the law of conservation of energy?	
	A	I. Sechenov, I. Pavlov	
	*B	J. Mayer, H. Helmholtz	
	C	F. Magendie, Ch. Bell	
	D	M. Schleiden, Th. Schwann	
7.	In the 17th–18th centuries in Europe every year nearly 12 million people got sick with smallpox, 1,5–2 mln. of them died, a significant part of those who recovered, lost their vision. The inoculation – variolation sometimes caused a very hard complications or even terminal illness. When was the first prophylactic immunization with cow pox against smallpox introduced?	
	*A	At the end of the 18th century	
	B	The first half of the 19th century	
	C	Late 19th century	
	D	The early 20th century	
8.	Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was a famous Russian physiologist, the founder of the biggest physiological school in Russian empire. His works greatly contributed to the development of medicine, psychology and physiology. When and for what research did I. Pavlov receive the Noble Prize?	
	A	In 1883 for the study of the physiology of blood circulation 	
	*B	In 1904 for the study of the physiology of digestion 	
	C	In 1926 for the study of the higher nervous activity 	
	D	In 1928 for conditioned reflexes 	
9.	The morbid anatomy is an integral part of theoretical and practical medicine and has its roots in Antiquity. As an independent discipline it developed slowly because of long-term prohibition of dissection of dead bodies. Only in the 16th century the accumulation of the materials on the morbid anatomy of diseases began. Who was the founder of the morbid anatomy in the second half of the 18th century?	
	A	Claude Bernard	
	B	Francois Magendie	
	*C	Giovanni Morgagni	
	D	Rudolf Virchow	
10.	In 1894 S. Ramon y Cajal published the first fundamental work, devoted to the study of neurons of the retina – “The Retina of Vertebrates”. What scientists proved that the ability of the retina of an adult person to see spatially was not an inherited quality, but acquired life experience?	
	A	C. Bernard	
	B	F. Magendie 	
	C	J. Muller	
	*D	H. Helmholtz	
11.	The second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries were marked by a number of discoveries in the field of natural sciences, among which one of the most important was the discovery of the cell. What scientists developed the studies about the cell structure of an organism?	
	A	F. Magendie, Ch. Bell 	
	B	J. Mayer, H. Helmholtz	
	C	I. Sechenov, I. Pavlov	
	*D	M. Schleiden, Th. Schwann	
12.	Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a famous German microbiologist. Causative agents of what infectious diseases did he discover?	
	A	Causative agents of the plague and cholera 	
	B	Causative agents of the plague and smallpox	
	C	Causative agents of the smallpox and measles 	
	*D	Causative agents of the tuberculosis and Asiatic cholera	
13.	The study about methods of the diagnosis of diseases is called diagnostics. The diagnostics is a branch of the medical science, stating methods of the diagnosis for the determination of a disease and the condition of the sick aiming to prescribe the necessary treatment and preventive measures. What methods of the objective diagnostics were developed first?	
	A	Clinical assessments	
	*B	Percussion and auscultation	
	C	Radiographic investigations	
	D	Ultrasound investigations	
14.	The cerebral inhibition is an active nervous process, arising in the central nervous system and resulting in the suppression or prevention of the irritation. What scientist discovered cerebral inhibition, named after him?	
	A	C. Bernard 	
	B	Ch. Bell	
	C	H. Helmholtz	
	*D	I. Sechenov
	
15.	In the 19th century new methods of diagnostic were developed. There were percussion and auscultation among them. Who and when developed a method of the percussion?	
	*A	In 1761, Leopold Auenbrugger	
	B	In 1808, Jean-Nicolas Corvisart	
	C	In 1819, Rene Laennec 	
	D	In 1855, Claude Bernard 	

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL

1.	What were the first methods of physiological research?
2.	What events connected with the formation of the demography as a science?
3.	What discovery did E. Jenner make?
4.	What were the most significant discoveries in the field of the physiology?
5.	What was the contribution of R. Laennec into medicine?
6.	What methods of the prevention of purulent process evolvement in wounds were offered in the first half of the 19th century?
7.	What is Bell-Magendie law?
8.	How did the physiology and experimental medicine develop in the 19th century?
9.	Who of the famous Russian physiologists do you know? What discoveries did they make?
10.	 What discoveries in the ophthalmology did H. Helmholtz make?
11.	 What discovery did Louis Pasteur make?
12.	 What was the contribution of R. Koch into medicine?
13.	 What is the theory of phagocytosis? What scientist is the author of it?
14.	 What discovery did Wilhelm Rontgen make?
15.	What methods of the anesthesia were offered in the 19th century?

CONTENT

Guidelines for the Topic Training.....……........……….....................................	3	
Main Theoretical Material for Class Training.............……..........................….	4	
1. Morbid Anatomy ………………………........................................…	4	
2. The Iatrochemistry. The Peculiarities of the Development of Medicine in the Netherlands in the 17th–18th centuries ….....…........................	
4	
3. The Development of Medicine in England in the 18th–19th centuries.	5	
4. The Separation of Physiology into a Branch of Science.............……	6	
5. The Peculiarities of the Development of Medicine in France in the 18th c. ………………………………………………………………………….	
6	
6. The Discovery of the Cell ……………………………..............……	7	
7. The Cellular Pathology …………....……………………..................	7	
8. The Experimental Medicine ……………………………...........……	7	
9. The Bacteriology ………….…………………………….............…..	9	
10. The Clinical Medicine …………….……...…………….............….	10	
11. The Surgery …………….………………………………............….	11	
12. The Anesthesia ……………………………....…………............….	11	
Tests………………………………………………………......................……..	11	
Questions for Self-control...................…………………….....………………..	15	

Educational publication

HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Methodical instructions 
for students to the practical lesson on the topic 
“Medicine in the Modern Era 
(mid.-to-late 17th – the early 20th centuries)”
for the preparation of students in specialties: 222 “Medicine”,
221 “Dentistry”.

Compilers:	Ognev Viktor	
	Semenenko Olena	
	Martynenko Nataliya	
	Myakyna Olexander	

Responsible to sign-off V. Ognev

Формат А5. Ризографія. Ум.друк. арк. 1,.
Тираж 100 прим. Зам. № 17-33526.
______________________________________________________________
Редакційно-видавничийвідділ
ХНМУ, пр. Науки, 4, м. Харків, 61022
izdat@knmu.kharkov.ua
Свідоцтво про внесення суб’єкта видавничої справи до Державного реєстру видавництв,
виготівників і розповсюджувачів видавничої продукції
серії ДК № 3242 від 18.07.2008 р.